1. Modals - English Grammar
All the auxiliary verbs except be, do and have are called modals. Unlike other auxiliary verbs modals only exist in their helping form; they cannot act alone as the main verb in a sentence.Be, do, and have also differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also serve as ordinary verbs in a given sentence.
1) can
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| ability to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be able to) | I can speak English. |
| permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) | Can I go to the cinema? |
| request | Can you wait a moment, please? |
| offer | I can lend you my car till tomorrow. |
| suggestion | Can we visit Grandma at the weekend? |
| possibility | It can get very hot in Arizona. |
2) could
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| ability to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be able to) | I could speak English. |
| permission to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be allowed to) | I could go to the cinema. |
| polite question * | Could I go to the cinema, please? |
| polite request * | Could you wait a moment, please? |
| polite offer * | I could lend you my car till tomorrow. |
| polite suggestion * | Could we visit Grandma at the weekend? |
| possibility * | It could get very hot in Montana. |
3) may
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| possibility | It may rain today. |
| permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) | May I go to the cinema? |
| polite suggestion | May I help you? |
4) might
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| possibility (less possible than may) * | It might rain today. |
| hesitant offer * | Might I help you? |
5) must
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| force, necessity | I must go to the supermarket today. |
| possibility | You must be tired. |
| advice, recommendation | You must see the new film with Brad Pitt. |
6) must not/may not
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| prohibition | You mustn't work on dad's computer. You may not work on dad's computer. |
7) need not
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| not necessary | I needn't go to the supermarket, we're going to the restaurant tonight. |
8) ought to
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| advice | You ought to drive carefully in bad weather. |
| obligation | You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room. |
9) shall
instead of will in the 1st person
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| suggestion | Shall I carry your bag? |
10) should
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| advice | You should drive carefully in bad weather. |
| obligation | You should switch off the light when you leave the room. |
11) will
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| wish, request, demand, order (less polite than would) | Will you please shut the door? |
| prediction, assumption | I think it will rain on Friday. |
| promise | I will stop smoking. |
| spontaneous decision | Can somebody drive me to the station? - I will. |
| habits | She's strange, she'll sit for hours without talking. |
12) would
| Use | Examples |
|---|---|
| wish, request (more polite than will) | Would you shut the door, please? |
| habits in the past | Sometimes he would bring me some flowers. |
* no past forms - future forms
2. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green.
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The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.
3. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows:for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red.
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The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?
4. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who,or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.
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When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.
Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence.
5. Adverb Clause
An adverb may be a single word such as quickly, here or yesterday (see the page Adverbs), or a phrase such as the day before yesterday or to see my mother (see the pageAdverb Phrases). However, adverbs can also be clauses, containing a subject and a full verb. This page will explain the basic types of adverb clauses (sometimes called "adverbial clauses") and how to recognize them.
Types of adverb clause
There are many types of adverb clauses. Here are some examples of the most common types:
As you can see from the examples above, most adverb clauses can be recognized because they are introduced by a particular word or phrase (such as "when" and "so that"). These words and phrases are called subordinating conjunctions, and there are many of them, including these:
6. Adjective Clause
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
| Type | Question answered | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Place | Where? | Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software. |
| Time | When? | After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market. |
| Cause | Why? (What caused this?) | I didn't call her because I'm shy. |
| Purpose | Why? (What was the reason for doing this?) | She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. |
| Concession | Why is this unexpected? | Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store clerk. |
| Condition | Under what conditions? | If you save your money, you will be able to go to college. |
after, before, until, while, because, since, as, so that, in order that, if, unless, whether, though, although, even though, where
6. Adjective Clause
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It is possible to combine the following two sentences to form one sentence containing an adjective clause:
The children are going to visit the museum.
They are on the bus.
They are on the bus.
The children who are on the bus are going to visit the museum.
| adjective clause |
| adjective clause |
In the sentence above, there are two other ways to write the sentence correctly using the second sentence as the adjective clause.
The children that are on the bus are going to visit the museum.
The children on the bus are going to visit the museum.
The children on the bus are going to visit the museum.
Some other sentences can be combined into a sentence using adjective clauses in a variety of ways, and they are all correct. Note the variety of ways in which the following two sentences can be combined.
The church is old.
My grandparents were married there.
My grandparents were married there.
The church where my grandparents were married is old.
The church in which my grandparents were married is old.
The church which my grandparents were married in is old.
The church that my grandparents were married in is old.
The church my grandparents were married in is old.
The church in which my grandparents were married is old.
The church which my grandparents were married in is old.
The church that my grandparents were married in is old.
The church my grandparents were married in is old.
In the sentences above, the adjective clauses are underlined. All answers are correct. Note the use of the word "in" and how and where it is used.
7. Noun Clause
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as thesubject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following examples:
- noun
- I know Latin.
- noun clause
- I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
- noun
- Their destination is unknown.
- noun clause
- Where they are going is unknown.
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
- about what you bought at the mall
- Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
- The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
8. Paired Conjunction
Did you know … 
·Both a poor diet and not enough exercise can make you sleepy.
·Weight-bearing exercises strengthen not only your muscles but also your bones.
Pregnant women should neither start a new exercise routine nor exercise for weight loss during their pregnancy.
·You can exercise either in the morning or in the afternoon and still get the same results. It all depends on when you have the most energy.
The sentences above provide not only interesting information about exercise but also examples of paired conjunctions (both … and, not only…but also, neither…nor, either…or) in English. In order to learn more about both fitness and paired conjunctions, read on.
Both / and & not only / but also
We use paired conjunctions to connect two ideas in a sentence. Now, you may be thinking to yourself, “Isn’t that what regular conjunctions (and, nor, or, etc.) do?” And the answer is, “Yes!” Coordinating conjunctions do provide a similar service, but we choose to use paired conjunctions for emphasis. Let’s look at how paired conjunctions can emphasize two points in a sentence.
We’ll start by looking at the paired conjunctions both … and … and not only … but also … together because these two pairs communicate the same meaning. They basically mean “and.” They connect two pieces of information that are just additional. Look at the sentence below:
Original: Cardiovascular exercise is good for the heart and fun.
In this sentence we learn two things about cardiovascular exercise: it is good for your heart and it is fun. These two ideas are appropriately connected in the sentence with the word and. However, we can express the same sentence with paired conjunctions:
Both … and … : Cardiovascular exercise is both good for the heart and fun.
Not only … but also … : Cardiovascular exercise is not only good for the heart but also fun.
The only difference in meaning between these two sentences and our original sentence is the emphasis that the two ideas about cardiovascular exercise receive. The paired conjunctions stress that there are two things you need to know about cardiovascular exercise, not just one thing. As a result, the use of these structures is a choice, and the writer or speaker gets to make that choice.
Let’s look at a few more examples of both … and … and not only … but also …to make sure we really understand their use:
Aerobic exercise is any exercise that both uses large muscle groups and lasts for a long time.
Regular aerobic exercise makes not only your heart but also your lungs function more efficiently.
After doing regular aerobic exercise for several weeks, you will be able to exercise both longer and more vigorously.
A good exercise routine requires not only strength training but also an aerobic workout
.
Either/or
Now let’s look at how we use either … or … . As you might imagine, either … or … is similar in meaning to the conjunction or. What meaning does “or” communicate? If you said, “Choice,” then you’re right! Or and either … or …both communicate a choice between options or possibilities. Let’s see how this idea of options can be expressed using the two different conjunctions. Read the following dialogue between a patient and his doctor:
Patient : My knees hurt when I run. What other kinds of exercises should I do to decrease the impact of the exercise on my knees?
Doctor: You could try swimmingor bicycle riding. Both of these exercises will be gentler on your knees.
Now, our doctor could have chosen to say:
Doctor: You could try either swimming or bicycle riding. Both of these exercises will be gentler on your knees.
By choosing to use either … or …, the doctor is trying to emphasize or stress to her patient that he has options. Again, we see that the use of the paired conjunction is a choice made by the speaker or writer, and that the choice is guided by the desire to emphasize the two things being connected.
Let’s look at a couple of more examples of either … or … to make sure we really understand its use:
If you are hungry after working out, try eating either a granola bar ora fruit bar
Don’t completely abandon your commitment to exercise if either bad weather or illness become brief obstacles.
Neither/nor
While neither … nor … looks similar to either … or …, it is actually closer in meaning to both … and … because it connects additional information. It tells you two things about a topic. Most importantly, however, neither … nor … must be used to connect two negative ideas. Look at the following example:
When attending a yoga class, you need neither your cigarettes noryour cell phone.
According to this sentence, there are two things that you do NOT need in a yoga class: your cigarettes and your cell phone.
Of curse, we could communicate the same ideas with the following sentence:
When attending a yoga class, you don’t need your cigarettes and your cell phone.
Notice that both of these sentences are negative. In the first sentence neither … nor … carries the negative meaning; however, in our second example, the verb carries the negation (don’t).
Since double negatives are not acceptable in standard academic English, it would be wrong to make the verb negative in the first sentence:
Incorrect : When attending a yoga class, you don’t need neither your cigarettes nor your cell phone.
Let’s look at a couple of more examples of neither … nor … to make sure we really understand its use:
Neither watching TV norplaying video games will help you lose weight.
If you are feeling sick, you should neither exercise with a fever norintensify your workout
resources:
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/hilfsverben2.htm
http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/verbmodal.htm
http://www.eslbee.com/sentences.htm
http://eslbee.com/AdjClauses.htm
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/advcls.htm
http://amerenglish-grammar-2.webs.com/conjunctions.htm
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